D O C . 1 5 6 O N B A S I C C O N C E P T S O F P H Y S I C S 1 6 5 It is widely known that elementary chemical processes can be initiated by ultra- violet light & even more readily by roentgen rays, which have much higher ener- gies than those initiated by red or yellow light. The intensity of the radiation is not important only the color or frequency of the rays plays a role.[8] The energy that is transferred to the absorbing body on absorption of the radiation depends empirical- ly only on the frequency of the radiation. This fact could not be explained by field theory. That theory would predict that the local concentration of energy should de- pend only on the strength of the radiation, and not on its frequency—in contradic- tion to the facts.[9] Based on field theory we cannot understand why radiation of a certain color can give up or take on energy only in well-defined portions. Something similar can be observed in the orbiting of the electrons around the atomic nuclei, which represents a high-frequency mechanical process.[10] These states of motion too are associated with specific, discrete values of the energy, which would appear completely incomprehensible according to the earlier theories of mechanics. One can see that such discontinuous energetic conditions dominate the structure of matter. Theories have already been proposed that allow us to cal- culate with great precision the possible energy states & the conditions for changes of those states. But these theories are characterized by an abandonment in principle of strict causality they are essentially statistical theories.[11] We shall explain in the following what this means. In earlier physics, statistical laws already had an important place. If I have a gas at low pressure inside a con- tainer that is open to empty space through a small hole, then from time to time— on the average every 10 seconds, for example—a gas molecule will pass through the hole into the empty space. The probability that a molecule will exit during a particular, given second, is then 1/10. This is a statistical statement. However, previously it was assumed that such regularities were based upon ex- act laws of collisions of the molecules with each other & with the walls of the con- tainer. If those laws were known precisely, as well as the states of motion of all the molecules at a given time, then it would be possible in principle, based on a feasible calculation, to predict precisely when a molecule would pass out of the container. Then the observed statistical law would be the result of strictly causal fundamental laws in combination with our incomplete knowledge of the precise[12] state of the system considered, or incompletely taking account of it. In contrast, according to those modern theories, the fundamental natural laws themselves are not strictly causal but only statistical. An example: If I have some atoms in a certain state A, they should themselves be able to undergo transition into [p. 6] [p. 7]