I N T R O D U C T I O N T O V O L U M E 1 4 l x x i was already well established, no such distribution existed for an ideal gas. Second, he effectively introduced a novel concept into physics, that of indistinguishable ma- terial particles. The concept of light quanta was still considered doubtful and elu- sive, and thus treating them as lacking identity did not offend common understanding. There were earlier allusions to Bose’s method for treating radiation. Dealing with resonators comes close to the idea of cells with occupation numbers. In earlier papers, Ehrenfest and De Broglie had pointed out the necessity of quanta- grouping in order to obtain Planck’s, rather than Wien’s, distribution.[44] But noth- ing like that existed for molecules, which were well-established massive particles. Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics, also well established, had dealt successfully with a conserved number of identifiable particles. Indeed Einstein had extensively used the Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics for gases (e.g., in his 1916/17 papers on the quantum theory of radiation). Applying the new statistics here had no precursor and had not been anticipated. Third, Einstein realized that the new equation of state im- plied a new, macroscopic, quantum phenomenon, and a new state of matter, that would come to be called “Bose-Einstein condensate.” XI Along with other sections of German society, the Jewish community was greatly affected by the economic instability of these years. Immigrants from Eastern Europe suffered the most. Liberal Jews provided aid to the Ostjuden, yet simulta- neously sought to distance themselves from them, wary of being identified in Ger- man racist propaganda with the recent newcomers. Anti-Semitic violence, which had already led to the assassination of Walther Rathenau and the attempted murder of Maximilian Harden in 1922, culminated in the riots of November 1923 in which nine people were killed and 100 stores were damaged or destroyed. However, the radical anti-Semites did not achieve any major political successes during this period. The years 1924–1925 were more peaceful on the surface, yet the founda- tions of the republic were not stable and governments based on shaky coalitions changed in quick succession. Among the Jewish assimilationists, like the Central- verein deutscher Staatsbürger jüdischen Glaubens and the Verein zur Abwehr des Antisemitismus, the battle against German anti-Semitism stood at the forefront of their efforts. In contrast, the German Zionists focused mainly on the colonization and settlement of a Jewish homeland. Emigration from Germany to Palestine was at its highest point in the years 1923–1925 and contributions to the Palestine Foun- dation Fund rose consistently.[45]
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